• All renal tract cancers can cause hematuria
• In older patients with hematuria, renal tract cancer must be excluded
• In younger patients cancer is less likely than renal disease such as glomerulonephritis
• In adults the kidneys can give rise to renal cell carcinoma
• This is often associated with systemic features such as night sweats and weight loss
• In children the kidneys can give rise to Wilm's tumour. This is associated with mutations in a transcription factor involved in renal development
• Bladder cancer is associated with smoking, schistosomiasis and dye industry toxins
• Bladder cancers spread locally
• Prostate cancer is common and can interfere with urinary flow and cause urinary obstruction
• Symptoms include hesitancy, poor stream, terminal dribbling, frequency, nocturia and urinary retention.
• A rectal examination may indicate a large, hard, craggy prostate
• Plasma levels of prostate specific antigen are often raised in prostate cancer.

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C. A. O'Callaghan 2004