• The edema states are characterised by excess sodium and water retention
• The major factor is inappropriate renal reabsorption of sodium
• The main causes are congestive heart failure, chronic liver disease and the nephrotic syndrome
• There is often perceived hypovolemia (low body volume)
• There is typically excess renin-angiotensin II and aldosterone, excess ADH and excess renal sympathetic nervous input which together promote sodium and water retention.
• Clinical signs can include pitting edema, a raised jugular venous pressure, added heart sounds and inspiratory crackles suggesting pulmonary edema

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Edematous states: An overview.
Andreoli TE, 1997
Kidney International 51 Suppl 59 pp S2-S10

Hormones and hemodynamics in heart failure
Schrier RW, Abraham WT 1999
N Engl J Med 341 pages 577-584

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C. A. O'Callaghan 2004